I was touched by this revealing article and i felt like sharing it with Nigerians, the effect of oil pollution on my people:
Department of Geography and Planning Sciences, *Department of Pure and Applied
Psychology, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State Nigeria
KEYWORDS Sustainable Development. Environmental Degradation. Gender Equity. Pollution
ABSTRACT Sustainable development in this millennium entails among other things ,gender equity in access to socioeconomic
and environmental resources. This paper continues the gender debate by evaluating the impacts of oil and
gas mining on women in Ilaje region of Ondo state Nigeria. Taking a sample of five oil producing villages of
Obierewoye, Ikorigbo, Obenla Awoye and Tsekelewu, 150 questionnaires were administered proportionately based on
the populations of the villages on female household heads or senior wives to household heads in the settlements, on
basis of systematic random sampling. Data collected were subjected to appropriate statistical analyses and the study
confirmed extensive oil and gas pollution in this region particularly in Tsekelewu and Opoekaba in spite of governments'
rhetoric on eliminating pollution by the year 2007. This phenomenon has had considerably high negative impacts on
women, who have had to combine their traditional roles as domestic workers and mothers along with their new roles
as fishermen, farmers and breadwinners thereby bridging the gap created following noticeable occupational migration
of men to the oil companies to work as welders, fitters and machinists. To alleviate these problems and lessen the
strains, the paper recommends increased monetisation rather than flaring of hydrocarbons and that government's
policy intervention in mitigating such impacts should be targeted at women as the most vulnerable group in areas of
major environmental problems.
INTRODUCTION
That for over forty years, the Nigerian Oil
and Gas mining Industry has contributed
significantly to environmental degradation in the
Niger Delta Region is no longer news (Odu 1985;
Alapodia 1986; Nigeria Oil and Gas Review 2002).
Durotoye (2000) while summarizing the negative
effects of the oil industry on the environment
observes that the country's tremendous
potentials for growth and sustainable
development through crude oil production is yet
to be fulfilled due to many constraints posed by
the industry on the environment.
The Nigerian Oil Industry is organized in such
a way that there is glaring inequity in women
participation .Studies have shown that men
account for about 90% of the total workforce in
Shell Petroleum Development Company Limited,
a company that produces over 80% of Nigeria
crude oil production (Shell Bulletin 2004).
However, empirical observation reveals that
women bear greater burden of environmental
problems, which result from oil production, from
their roles as mothers, wives, domestic workers,
farmers, fishermen and breadwinners. This study
is therefore designed to widen the gender studies
by investigating the relationship between
environmental degradation and feminine welfare
in Ilaje of Ondo State.
The paper examines the impact of the socalled
cultural division of labour on the plight of
women, in a region noted for high incidence of
pollution and poverty. The paper extends the
gender debate in the context of environmental
degradation by examining the impact of oil and
gas pollution on the welfare of women, using
standard of living indicators such as access to
clean water, improvement in income through socio
economic activities like fishing and agriculture
etc. Such are analyzed with a view to articulating
solutions for sustainable social and
environmental planning.
METHODOLOGY
The study concentrates on five oil mining
villages of Obierewoye, Ikorigbo, Obenla, Awoye
and Tselelewu. These villages have a fairly
uniform population. 150 questionnaires were
made and administered to female household
heads or senior wives on basis of systematic
random sampling technique. Allowances of two
houses were given before another sample was
chosen. In the whole, Ilaje region, Tsekelewu
and Opoekaba constitute the most important oil
mining villages. Together they account for over
70% of output by Chevron, the only oil company
operating in the zone. The intensity of pollution
is highest here. 70% of the questionnaires were
190 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
therefore administered here in Opoekaba and 45
questionnaires in Tsekelewu and 60 in Opoekaba
since Tsekelewu produces more oil than
Opoekaba. 15 questionnaires were administered
to each of the other three villages of Awoye,
Obenla and Ikorigbo. Descriptive statistics using
simple tables were utilised to analyse and present
the data.
Review of Literature
Oil Sustainable Development and Status of the
Nigerian Women
The history of the Nigerian oil industry started
from Oloibiri, now Bayelsa State in 1959. Several
studies have shown that Nigeria derives more
than 90% of its foreign exchange from these vital
resources (oil and gas). Together these resources
have served as a veritable source of employment
of skilled and unskilled labour ,especially in the
region, known as the Niger Delta of which Ilaje
the study area is part.
It is however regrettable that the mining of oil
and gas in the country has fallen short of global
standards, (Aluko 2002), and so cannot promote
the ideals of environmental sustainability. This
is evident form the serious pollutions that result
from mostly gas flaring in the oil fields.
Sustainable development has been defined as
economic and social development that meets the
needs of the current generation without
endangering the ability of the future generation
to meet theirs. Clayton (2001) observes that a
commitment to meet the needs of present and
future generations has various implications.
Meeting the needs of the present means
satisfying economic needs, socio-cultural,
environmental and health needs. There is also
the growing consensus that sustainable
development means achieving a quality of life
that can be maintained for many generations.
Good as these ideals are, it is a fact that
environmental degradation is antithetical to
development (Jiriko 1998; Ake 1993). Gas flaring
remained a common occurrence in the oil
producing areas of Ondo State. The World Bank
report (1998) claimed that 76% of the Nigerian
gas is flared into the environment. While this
problem has increased in recent past, it has created
serious problems to the quality of life, health,
farming, income and social equilibrium in the
study area in particular and the Niger Delta in
general. How this has affected the female folk is
the subject of this paper.
Status of Women
There is no shortage of literature on gender
studies worldwide. While scholars like Halima
(1990), Palmer (1991), Akor (1988) and Dimon
(1975) conducted their studies on gender
Economics, Olawoye (2001), on access of the
female gender to means of production, others
such as Callway (1987), Davidson (1988) and
Horenstein (1989) examined the gender question,
in relation to food security and feminine welfare.
Very few if any exist on environmental
degradation, and women. However, all these
studies have always painted a grim picture of the
female folk. For example, in his studies, Singh et
al. (1992) opined that Nigerian women marry
young, spend 74% of their reproductive life in
marriage, about 70% of adult female population
being illiterate compared to the adult male
illiteracy of 46%. Moreover, according to Snyder
(1990) women grow 80% of food and carry out
over 95% of the local food processing activities.
O`Neil (1991) also reported high poverty level
among Nigerian women because of their low
economic base as reflected in their low per capita
income. He believes that the high poverty level
among the women follows from the hostile
economic social and cultural environment in
which the society has placed them. This high
poverty level has been further compounded by
the adverse economic and environmental
conditions in which they operate (Aidoo 1988).
For example, as stated earlier, women constitute
majority of the farmers in Nigeria so the scarcity
of good soil and water implies increase in the
workload of women who have to look out for
new sources of good water, while continuing to
do the traditional work, both within and outside
domestic spheres. Oil and Gas mining in the study
area may therefore have presented new
challenges to women. Though it is true that the
oil industry has promoted some petty buying
and selling among women, the questions is how
adequate is this so-called positive impact,
especially when considered along environmental
damage which ultimately affects the capacity of
these women at self empowerment.
Empirical observation by the author has
revealed that women have not benefited much
from oil mining in this area, four decades after
OIL AND GAS POLLUTION ON FEMALE
the discovery of this vital resource. It has not
even fulfilled women's cultural and material needs
equitably, talk less of their social and
environmental needs since the resultant
environmental degradation has overwhelming
negative consequences. For example, while the
resettlement of the households whose homes
were located in oil fields by operating oil
companies and the compensation that may follow
may pose new opportunities to men, such may
however give more psychological problems to
women who may be emotionally attached to their
homes. How this valuable resource has
contributed to worsening female poverty is
discussed subsequently.
STUDY AREA
There are many communities that make up the
study area. These villages together constitute
the Ugbo Kingdom in Ilaje Ese Odo , local
government area of Ondo State. Out of the 16
villages, eight of them have oil extraction
activities going on either onshore or offshore,
while the remaining eight don't have oil extraction
presently. The eight oil-mining villages are
Oberewoye, Ikorigho, Obenia, Awoye, Tsekelewu
Malutehin, Odo Fado and Opoekaba. Out of these
eight villages, five most prominent oil producing
villages have been selected These are
Obierewoye, Ikorigbo, Opoekaba, Awoye and
Tsekelewu.
Generally, the study area has ratified
landscape with some pockets of Islands at Ugbo,
Ugbonla and Ugbo-Aiku, the south is swampy
and the coastline being entirely swampy from
Erun-Ona through Tsekelewu. More than 90% of
the study area is covered by water. This is in
form of rivers, creeks, canals, lagoons and
rivulets. Because of the closeness of the area
into the Atlantic Ocean, the water bodies are often
salty, courtesy of the creeks that link the ocean
to the inland water bodies. The soil is extremely
high in sulphate content and tends to maintain a
balance due to the effect of seasonal flooding
The contiguity of the study area to the coast
makes it to experience the domination of the
southwesterly winds. The land and sea breeze
brings continuous cooling effect to the coastline
and further into northern part of the study area.
The natural resources present in the area include
petroleum (Offshore and Onshore at Imoluwa,
Awoye, Ikorigho, Opoekaba, Tsekelewu) palm
kernel at Kiribo, fish and Raphia among others.
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION
Changing Roles of Women in Ilaje
The family has been defined as the union of
the father, mother and the children. However, in
the African context, a family extends more than
that. It also includes the extended family members
living with them. All of these members had their
roles. The father was the breadwinner; the mother
was in charge of domestic affairs, the male
children helped the father in the farms or in his
trade, while the females helped their mother in
her domestic duties. However, there is increasing
responsibility of the mother as breadwinners in
Africa, especially in areas where wars, famine
and other natural disasters have put a limit to the
capacity of men to perform their traditional roles.
Among the Ilajes of Ondo State, traditional
sexual division of labour found expression. Men
did the fishing and tilting of the land for farming,
while women washed, smoked, processed and
sold the produce. However, this study found out
that more women are now involved in fishing
and agriculture that was an area that used to be
dominated by men. Table 1 shows the occupational
distribution of women in the study area obtained
from the field.
Table 1: Occupational distribution of women
S. Occupation No. of Percentage
No. respondents
1. Fishing only 21 14.0
2. Fishing and smoking 75 50.0
3. Fishing, smoking and trading 24 16.0
4. Fishing and agriculture 18 12.0
5. Agriculture only 12 8.0
Source: Fieldwork 2008
The reason for this occupational migration
of inhabitants is not far fetched. Men are
increasingly abandoning this role to women due
to availability of new jobs in the oil facilities.
Out of 150 women sampled, 28 or 18% reported
some changes in spouses' occupation within
the past five years. Out of the 28, 19 or 68%
reported that their husbands are either directly
employed or are contractual staffs of or are
depended on the oil companies for their
livelihood somehow. The implication of this
occupational migration by men is that women
now combine their traditional roles of cooking,
fetching water and fish smoking to their new
191
Total 150 100.0
roles as breadwinners, thereby increasing the
burden they have to cope with. In the study
area, women are becoming major farmers,
fishermen and traders, the positions held
exclusively by men before the new opportunities
in the oil industries
Synopsis of Environmental Impact of Oil
Activities in Ilaje
The discussion on environmental implication
of oil and gas pollution on the environment will
be conducted under two broad headlines- These
are on soil and water quality in the study area. It
is in the context of this that the gender implication
could be better understood.
The impact of oil activities can be determined
through damage to soil properties. The
reconnaissance and field surveys carried out
on the communities where oil is exploited
showed evidence of barreness of the hitherto
fertile parcels of land used for farming. Indeed
this phenomenon has led to occupational
migration from farming in two of such
communities - Awoye and Molutehin, where 73
respondents reported migration from farming to
fish smoking and trading over the past 10 years.
Prior to the emergency of commercial oil
production in the 5 sampled communities around
1980, the clay-loamy soil was fertile for
agricultural purposes, especially the cultivation
of cocoyam, yam, maize, cassava etc. The study
showed that 92% of the respondents in the
communities with oil wells claimed that the soil
of their communities have been polluted in
one-way or the other. This finds scientific
explanation. Halogenated substances contain
hydrogen compounds with one or more of the
Halide elements such as chlorine, bromine and
iodine. Many of these substances are very toxic
to life, floral and fauna, and they may pose
immediate threat to human health. These
substances are present in hydrocarbons
One of the most obvious negative
implications of oil mining is the damage to water
resources (Gbadegesin and Adewumi 1997).
This is particularly important since water
constitute the most important environmental
resource in Ilaje. Water is used for domestic
purpose, transportation, fishing and to lesser
extent, for agricultural purpose in these
communities. Their whole life and existence
depends on water. It is on the basis of this that
the damage posed to this resource by oil
pollution can be understood. 91 respondents
or 61% of respondents in the study area reported
changing taste 105 or 70% colour and 87 or 58%
reported changing odour of the fresh water used
for drinking purpose. This can be appreciated
when it was discovered that 101 or 67.3%
reported exclusive dependence on surface water
for domestic use. No wonder therefore, that
women interviewed noted decreasing yield of
fish for basket per day over the last ten years of
oil mining.
Oil Pollution and Domestic Water Supply
Some years back before the coming into
operation of Chevron's oil mining activities in
1997, good water supply used to be abundant.
Women did not have to travel over long distances
to get good water for their families. However,
due to this activity, many surface water bodies
became polluted, some directly from oil and gas
flaring, others from the hydrocarbon leakage from
tankers. Respondents were asked to rank the
major problems being faced by them, 65%
reported pollution of water bodies as the greatest
problem being faced by women in Ilaje
(see Table 2). The drilling activities in some areas
like Tsekelewu made surface water muddy and
almost useless for domestic use. The implication
is that women now traveled over long distances
to get drinking water for their families. Reason
for traveling to get drinking water was
investigated. 70 respondents 46.6% reported
polluted surface water from hydrocarbons, while
38 respondents or 25% observed that surface
water was now getting coloured and dirty,
which is still a result of the activity as shown in
table 3.
Table 2: Major problems associated with oil exploitation
by respondents
Problem Number of Percentage
respondents
Pollution of water bodies 98 65.0
Poor commerce 12 8.0
Poor health facilities 10 6.6
Low fish catch 30 20.0
Source: Field report 2008
Table 4 shows that 78 respondents or 62%
have to travel for more than 1kilometer to obtain
drinking water (that is Borehole provided by
Chevron/NNPC joint venture at Opoekeba and
192 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
Tsekelewu). 12% travel on average of 2.5km, 8.5%
travel on average of 1.3kilometer, 20% travel for
an average of 1.8kilometer, 11% for an average of
2.3kilometer and 37% for less than 500 meters to
get drinking water.
From the table, it is clear that more women
travel from their communities to fetch drinking
water from the borehole provided by NNPC/
Chevron joint venture because the surface rivers
have been polluted. Communities like Opoekaba
and Tsekelewu travel very short distances because
the boreholes are located in their communities.
The suffering imposed by this situation in term
of drinking water can best be imagined in the
distance traveled by Canoe or Boat and money
spent in the process. For example, 94.8% of the
women use either boat or Canoe to travel to get
drinking water.
Given the fact that outboard engine consumes
more fuel than land vehicles, it is estimated that a
trip of about 21.5kilometer will cost N800 fuel to
and fro from the borehole sites per month (see
Table 5).
The implication of the foregoing analysis is
that surface river sources of drinking water is
polluted and rendered unfit for consumption. We
can thus conclude that while Nigeria benefits
from oil exploitation, in terms of foreign exchange,
oil mining and its attendant impacts has
worsened the plight of women who now have to
travel farther and spend more of their meager
Table 3: Reason for traveling to get drinking water
Town/Reasons Polluted Water Bush water is Others are Don’t know
Surrounding coloured and good for doing so
water dirty drinking
Opoekaba 22 12 5 3 3
Ikorigho 8 4 2 1 -
Obenla 5 4 3 - 3
Awoye 6 4 2 2 1
Tsekelewu 29 14 12 3 2
Source: Field report 2008
Table 4: Distance traveled to get drinking water in communities with oil wells
Town/Distance Less than 500m-1km 1.1km 1.6km-2km 2.1km Above Toral
500 1.5km 2.5km 2.5k.m
Obenla 2 7 6
Ikorigho 5 3 6 1
Opoekaba 34 8 3 7 5 3
Awoye - - - 3 3 9
Tsekelewu 22 3 5 7 3 5
Source: Field report 2008
Table 5: Estimated cost of travel by women to get
drinking water per month
Amount (Naira) Respondents Percentage
Below 500 21 14.0
500-1000 34 22.6
1500-2000 53 35.3
2000-2500 12 8.0
2500-3000 30 20.0
Total 150 100.0
Source: Fieldwork 2008
incomes to get drinking water thus increasing
feminine poverty in Ilaje regions.
Oil, Farming and Women
Scholars, such as Zitiko (1978) and Nwankwo
and Ifeadi (1988) have long recognized the
negative impacts of oil pollution on agriculture
in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria of which the
study area is classified. According to these
scholars, various materials that are released into
the environment in the course of oil production
operations directly or indirectly affect the
communities. These materials sink into the
ground and kill living micro plants and animals,
which are useful in germination of seed. Such
contaminants include elements such as oxide of
nitrogen, carbon and sulphur. Others include oil
and grease, phenol cyanide sulphide and muds
such as Beryite and Bentonite. All these have
OIL AND GAS POLLUTION ON FEMALE 193
Total 70 38 24 9 9
Percentage 46.6 25.4 16.0 6.0 6.0
Total 56 16 13 30 17 18
Percentage 37.0 10.6 8.6 20.0 11.0 12.0
led to progressive reduction of agricultural yield
in the area. This comes against the backdrop of
the fact that more women are now embracing
agriculture following decreasing fish yield per
basket.
Oil extraction and pollution have adversely
affected farming activities and figures in table 6
indicate that 95.7% of women claimed that their
farm lands have been affected in one way or the
other by hydrocarbons pollution while only 4.3
percent claimed no damage at all. Breaking the
figure down, 60% claim reduced crop yields,
30.4% claim destruction of plants, 3.5% believe
that the tubers of crops gets rotten and 1.7%
reported other types of damage.
Table 6: Effects of oil exploitation on farm
Effect Number of Percentage
respondents
Greatly reduced yield 87 58
Averagely reduced yield 37 24.7
No yield at all 19.5 13.0
No effect 6.5 4.3
Source: Field Work 2008
62% in Opoekaba, 53% in Tsekelewu to 22%
in Obenla. The implication of greatly reduced
farm yields among women farmers over the
years is reduced income and more poverty in
face of increasing responsibilities of women as
breadwinners to their families.
Women Fishing and Poverty
Fishing is no doubt the major economic
activity in Ilaje region of Ondo State and women
are involved in fishing trade from catching to
smoking to trading in fish. However, there has
been an observed reduction in yield over the
past ten years of oil mining.
Hydrocarbons affect the natural habitat of
fishes. Moreover, pollution results in the inability
to breed and out migration of fishes (Adeniyi
1978). Women interviewed reported an average
of 65.3% reduction in yield per basket as shown
in the table 7.
This is particularly important since about 90%
of women interviewed were in the fishing
industry. The implication of this is reduced
standard of living since more harvest translates
to more money and vice versa. More over, more
and more women now have to travel to catch
fishes since aquatic animals now out migrate to
new habitats free of hydrocarbons, thereby
imposing more strain on women as shown in the
table 8.
Table 7: Estimated fish yield per basket.
Towns Number of Estimated yield Estimated yield Percentage
respondents before oil after oil reduction
pollution/basket pollution/basket
per day (1995) per day (2006)
Opoekaba 45 1-1.5 0.5 40
Ikorigho 15 1-2 1 66
Obenla 15 1-3 2.5 None
Awoye 15 2.5 1.8 72
Opoekaba 45 1-1.5 0.5 40
Ikorigho 15 1-2 1 66
Obenla 15 1-3 2.5 None
Awoye 15 2.5 1.8 72
Tsekelewu 60 1.2 1 83
Source: Field survey 2008
Table 8: Estimated distance to fishing ground
Town No. of respondents Estimated distance to Estimated distance of fishing
fishing ground by 1995 ground in 2006
Opoekaba 45 0.5km to 3.7km 5-20km
Ikorigho 15 0.8km to 8km 6-15km
Obenla 15 2-3km 3-10km
Awoye 15 0.5-1km Over 5km
Tsekelewu 60 2-5km 10-15km
Source: Fieldwork 2008
194 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
Total 150 100.0
The effects of oil exploitation on farmlands
vary among the sampled villages. The women
farmers in the villages of Tsekelewu and
Opoekaba reported high incidences of pollution
on their farmlands. The percentage varies from
Table 8 shows clearly an increase of over 300%
in travel distance to good fishing grounds over
the past 10 years. Oil mining activity is a major
contributor to this. This activity has depleted
fish and other aquatic animal habitats pushing it
further into non-oil producing fresh water
swamps. This has further imposed strain on
women bearing in mind that more women are now
exclusively fishermen (14%), fishermen and fish
smokers (64%), fishermen, fish smokers and
traders (80%).
CONCLUSION
This study has tried to evaluate the negative
impacts of environmental degradation
occasioned by oil mining on women. Using such
indices as women as breadwinners, women as
fishermen and farmers and women as providers
of domestic services to their families. The study
has again revealed the pathetic situation of
women as the most vulnerable group. The study
found out that environmental degradation may
have had more negative impacts on women than
men due to their traditional and changing roles
among the Ilajes. Thus, while men may find in
the oil industry new opportunities, it may have
increased strain on women in terms of access to
water, access to new fish grounds, depleted and
degraded farmlands and so on.
RECOMMENDATION
This work is centered on assessing the
negative impacts of Oil and Gas Mining on
women of Ilaje Area of Ondo State in Nigeria, a
major region noted for high incidence of pollution
which results from misuse of these valuable
environmental and non- renewable resources. By
taking a sample of the oil producing villages, the
study established extensive damage to soil and
water resources especially in Tsekelewu and
Opoekaba which affects not only economic
activities of agriculture and fishing, but also
domestic water supply, commerce and environmental
sustainability.
This has continued unabated over the years in
spite of Government's rhetorics on ending this
wasteful attitude. It was also established that this
phenomenon has affected women who have had
to combine their domestic roles as mother to their
new roles as bread winners for their families. The
study finds out that women are increasingly
involved in traditionally men's roles as farmers
and fishermen. This they do with considerable
difficulty, since oil and gas pollution has affected
agricultural yield, reduced fish caught from 1- 1.5
standard basket per day before oil production to
less than 1 standard basket per day after oil rig
was installed in Opoekaba, increased distance
traveled to get good drinking water to more than 1
kilometer and increased poverty generally in the
area.
To alleviate this burden, it is recommended
that the government must ensure the monetization
of the gas being flared and impose stringent oil
mining rules to ensure a better environment.
Moreover, development planners should recognize
women and children as the most vulnerable group
in a challenging environment as we have here.
Measures designed to alleviate their strains
should be specifically incorporated in development
projects so that they can be empowered equitably
in meeting the millennium development goal of
sustainable environment and gender equity by
2015.
REFERENCES
Adeniyi I 1978. Effects of Oil Pollution on Fishing in
Focados, Delta state. Journal of Food Production
in Africa, 12: 120-135.
Aidoo A 1988. Women and food security, the opportunity
for Africa. African Development Journal, 2(3): 56-
61.
Ake C 1993. The Underdevelopment of the Niger Delta.
Paper Presented at the Bi Annual Conference of
Nigeran Institute of Policy and Startegic Studies,
Kuru, Jos, March 1 - 15 1990.
Akor R 1988. Rural Women and Agricultural
Development in Nigeria: Case Studies of Kaduna
and Bendel State APMEU. Journal of Economics
and Social Research, 4: 22-38.
Alapodia J 1986. Effects of Gas Flaring on the Micro
Climate and Adjacent Vegetation in Isoko Area of
Bendel State. MURP Thesis, Unpublished, Ibadan:
University of Ibadan,.
Callaway B 1987. Muslim Hausa Women in Nigeria:
Tradition and Change: New York: Syracruse Press.
Clayton B 2003. Sustainable Development in the New
Millennium. In Sustainable Development in Africa
Conference held in Nairobi, Kenya, November 3 -
10, 2003.
Davison J 1988. Agriculture, Women and Land: The
African Experience Boulder. London: Westview
Press.
Dimon E 1975. The Small Scale Rural Food Processing
Industry in Northern. Nigeria Palo Alto: Stanford
University Food Research Institute, Volume 18
No.10. 28 -30.
Durotoye B 2000. Geo-Environmental Constraints in
the Development of the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria.
Lagos: Fredrich Ebert Foundation.
Gbadegeshin A, Adewumi E 1997. The Impacts of Oil
Exploitation and Production Activities on the
OIL AND GAS POLLUTION ON FEMALE 195
Environment, Implication for Peasants. A Campaign
for Defense of Human Rights CDHR Publication.
Volume 1, No. 3.
Horenstein N 1989. Women and Food Security in Kenya.
Washington DC.: World Bank. Nigeria Oil and Gas
Review Volume 21, 2002, Abuja. 22-28
Jiriko G 1998. Aspects and Topical Issues in Urban and
Regional Planning Practices. Volume 1. Kaduna:.Dalin
Publishers. 1-5
Nwankwo C 2000. Environment Food and Agriculture
Dynamics; Development Policy Implication for
National Resources Exploration and Exploitation
in the Niger Delta Wetlands In: Oshuntokun
Olalekan (Ed.): Environmental Problems of the
Niger Delta. Lagos: Fredrich Ebert Foundation,
pp. 22-28.
O' Neil M 1991. Priorities for International Support for
African Development: The Women's Agenda.
Development, 1: 68-70.
Odu C 1985. Degradation and Wealth of Crude Oil under
Tropical Conditions. The Petroleum Industry and
the Nigerian Environment, Lagos: NNPC, pp. 143-
153.
Olawoye A 2001. Women and Farming in Africa. Akure:
Bentos Publishers. 82-85
Olawoye J 2000. Difficulties of Rural African Women to
Secure assess to resources for Agricultural
Production: Two case studies from Oyo State
Nigeria. Ibadan: Bossman Publishers.
Palmer Jeremy 1991. Gender and Population in the
Adjustment of African Economics. Planning for
Change. Stockholm: World Commission on
Population IR&D.
Shell Bulletin 2004. Published by shell Nigeria Publishing
Department. Volume 12, No 15.
Singh B, Saddiqque I, Martins B.l 1992. Industrial
Pollution in India, Punjab 1137 ANS. West Bengal
J, 1(4): 519-525.
World Bank 1999. State of the World Manufacturing
and Competitiveness of Developing Countries. 360
BD, USA. Washington DC: World Bank, pp. 102 -
104.
Zikito R 1978.Toxity and Environmental properties of
chemicals used in a well drilling Operations.
Publisher Environment Canada Brundswick EPA
Conf., pp. 45-58.
196 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
Department of Geography and Planning Sciences, *Department of Pure and Applied
Psychology, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State Nigeria
KEYWORDS Sustainable Development. Environmental Degradation. Gender Equity. Pollution
ABSTRACT Sustainable development in this millennium entails among other things ,gender equity in access to socioeconomic
and environmental resources. This paper continues the gender debate by evaluating the impacts of oil and
gas mining on women in Ilaje region of Ondo state Nigeria. Taking a sample of five oil producing villages of
Obierewoye, Ikorigbo, Obenla Awoye and Tsekelewu, 150 questionnaires were administered proportionately based on
the populations of the villages on female household heads or senior wives to household heads in the settlements, on
basis of systematic random sampling. Data collected were subjected to appropriate statistical analyses and the study
confirmed extensive oil and gas pollution in this region particularly in Tsekelewu and Opoekaba in spite of governments'
rhetoric on eliminating pollution by the year 2007. This phenomenon has had considerably high negative impacts on
women, who have had to combine their traditional roles as domestic workers and mothers along with their new roles
as fishermen, farmers and breadwinners thereby bridging the gap created following noticeable occupational migration
of men to the oil companies to work as welders, fitters and machinists. To alleviate these problems and lessen the
strains, the paper recommends increased monetisation rather than flaring of hydrocarbons and that government's
policy intervention in mitigating such impacts should be targeted at women as the most vulnerable group in areas of
major environmental problems.
INTRODUCTION
That for over forty years, the Nigerian Oil
and Gas mining Industry has contributed
significantly to environmental degradation in the
Niger Delta Region is no longer news (Odu 1985;
Alapodia 1986; Nigeria Oil and Gas Review 2002).
Durotoye (2000) while summarizing the negative
effects of the oil industry on the environment
observes that the country's tremendous
potentials for growth and sustainable
development through crude oil production is yet
to be fulfilled due to many constraints posed by
the industry on the environment.
The Nigerian Oil Industry is organized in such
a way that there is glaring inequity in women
participation .Studies have shown that men
account for about 90% of the total workforce in
Shell Petroleum Development Company Limited,
a company that produces over 80% of Nigeria
crude oil production (Shell Bulletin 2004).
However, empirical observation reveals that
women bear greater burden of environmental
problems, which result from oil production, from
their roles as mothers, wives, domestic workers,
farmers, fishermen and breadwinners. This study
is therefore designed to widen the gender studies
by investigating the relationship between
environmental degradation and feminine welfare
in Ilaje of Ondo State.
The paper examines the impact of the socalled
cultural division of labour on the plight of
women, in a region noted for high incidence of
pollution and poverty. The paper extends the
gender debate in the context of environmental
degradation by examining the impact of oil and
gas pollution on the welfare of women, using
standard of living indicators such as access to
clean water, improvement in income through socio
economic activities like fishing and agriculture
etc. Such are analyzed with a view to articulating
solutions for sustainable social and
environmental planning.
METHODOLOGY
The study concentrates on five oil mining
villages of Obierewoye, Ikorigbo, Obenla, Awoye
and Tselelewu. These villages have a fairly
uniform population. 150 questionnaires were
made and administered to female household
heads or senior wives on basis of systematic
random sampling technique. Allowances of two
houses were given before another sample was
chosen. In the whole, Ilaje region, Tsekelewu
and Opoekaba constitute the most important oil
mining villages. Together they account for over
70% of output by Chevron, the only oil company
operating in the zone. The intensity of pollution
is highest here. 70% of the questionnaires were
190 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
therefore administered here in Opoekaba and 45
questionnaires in Tsekelewu and 60 in Opoekaba
since Tsekelewu produces more oil than
Opoekaba. 15 questionnaires were administered
to each of the other three villages of Awoye,
Obenla and Ikorigbo. Descriptive statistics using
simple tables were utilised to analyse and present
the data.
Review of Literature
Oil Sustainable Development and Status of the
Nigerian Women
The history of the Nigerian oil industry started
from Oloibiri, now Bayelsa State in 1959. Several
studies have shown that Nigeria derives more
than 90% of its foreign exchange from these vital
resources (oil and gas). Together these resources
have served as a veritable source of employment
of skilled and unskilled labour ,especially in the
region, known as the Niger Delta of which Ilaje
the study area is part.
It is however regrettable that the mining of oil
and gas in the country has fallen short of global
standards, (Aluko 2002), and so cannot promote
the ideals of environmental sustainability. This
is evident form the serious pollutions that result
from mostly gas flaring in the oil fields.
Sustainable development has been defined as
economic and social development that meets the
needs of the current generation without
endangering the ability of the future generation
to meet theirs. Clayton (2001) observes that a
commitment to meet the needs of present and
future generations has various implications.
Meeting the needs of the present means
satisfying economic needs, socio-cultural,
environmental and health needs. There is also
the growing consensus that sustainable
development means achieving a quality of life
that can be maintained for many generations.
Good as these ideals are, it is a fact that
environmental degradation is antithetical to
development (Jiriko 1998; Ake 1993). Gas flaring
remained a common occurrence in the oil
producing areas of Ondo State. The World Bank
report (1998) claimed that 76% of the Nigerian
gas is flared into the environment. While this
problem has increased in recent past, it has created
serious problems to the quality of life, health,
farming, income and social equilibrium in the
study area in particular and the Niger Delta in
general. How this has affected the female folk is
the subject of this paper.
Status of Women
There is no shortage of literature on gender
studies worldwide. While scholars like Halima
(1990), Palmer (1991), Akor (1988) and Dimon
(1975) conducted their studies on gender
Economics, Olawoye (2001), on access of the
female gender to means of production, others
such as Callway (1987), Davidson (1988) and
Horenstein (1989) examined the gender question,
in relation to food security and feminine welfare.
Very few if any exist on environmental
degradation, and women. However, all these
studies have always painted a grim picture of the
female folk. For example, in his studies, Singh et
al. (1992) opined that Nigerian women marry
young, spend 74% of their reproductive life in
marriage, about 70% of adult female population
being illiterate compared to the adult male
illiteracy of 46%. Moreover, according to Snyder
(1990) women grow 80% of food and carry out
over 95% of the local food processing activities.
O`Neil (1991) also reported high poverty level
among Nigerian women because of their low
economic base as reflected in their low per capita
income. He believes that the high poverty level
among the women follows from the hostile
economic social and cultural environment in
which the society has placed them. This high
poverty level has been further compounded by
the adverse economic and environmental
conditions in which they operate (Aidoo 1988).
For example, as stated earlier, women constitute
majority of the farmers in Nigeria so the scarcity
of good soil and water implies increase in the
workload of women who have to look out for
new sources of good water, while continuing to
do the traditional work, both within and outside
domestic spheres. Oil and Gas mining in the study
area may therefore have presented new
challenges to women. Though it is true that the
oil industry has promoted some petty buying
and selling among women, the questions is how
adequate is this so-called positive impact,
especially when considered along environmental
damage which ultimately affects the capacity of
these women at self empowerment.
Empirical observation by the author has
revealed that women have not benefited much
from oil mining in this area, four decades after
OIL AND GAS POLLUTION ON FEMALE
the discovery of this vital resource. It has not
even fulfilled women's cultural and material needs
equitably, talk less of their social and
environmental needs since the resultant
environmental degradation has overwhelming
negative consequences. For example, while the
resettlement of the households whose homes
were located in oil fields by operating oil
companies and the compensation that may follow
may pose new opportunities to men, such may
however give more psychological problems to
women who may be emotionally attached to their
homes. How this valuable resource has
contributed to worsening female poverty is
discussed subsequently.
STUDY AREA
There are many communities that make up the
study area. These villages together constitute
the Ugbo Kingdom in Ilaje Ese Odo , local
government area of Ondo State. Out of the 16
villages, eight of them have oil extraction
activities going on either onshore or offshore,
while the remaining eight don't have oil extraction
presently. The eight oil-mining villages are
Oberewoye, Ikorigho, Obenia, Awoye, Tsekelewu
Malutehin, Odo Fado and Opoekaba. Out of these
eight villages, five most prominent oil producing
villages have been selected These are
Obierewoye, Ikorigbo, Opoekaba, Awoye and
Tsekelewu.
Generally, the study area has ratified
landscape with some pockets of Islands at Ugbo,
Ugbonla and Ugbo-Aiku, the south is swampy
and the coastline being entirely swampy from
Erun-Ona through Tsekelewu. More than 90% of
the study area is covered by water. This is in
form of rivers, creeks, canals, lagoons and
rivulets. Because of the closeness of the area
into the Atlantic Ocean, the water bodies are often
salty, courtesy of the creeks that link the ocean
to the inland water bodies. The soil is extremely
high in sulphate content and tends to maintain a
balance due to the effect of seasonal flooding
The contiguity of the study area to the coast
makes it to experience the domination of the
southwesterly winds. The land and sea breeze
brings continuous cooling effect to the coastline
and further into northern part of the study area.
The natural resources present in the area include
petroleum (Offshore and Onshore at Imoluwa,
Awoye, Ikorigho, Opoekaba, Tsekelewu) palm
kernel at Kiribo, fish and Raphia among others.
OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION
Changing Roles of Women in Ilaje
The family has been defined as the union of
the father, mother and the children. However, in
the African context, a family extends more than
that. It also includes the extended family members
living with them. All of these members had their
roles. The father was the breadwinner; the mother
was in charge of domestic affairs, the male
children helped the father in the farms or in his
trade, while the females helped their mother in
her domestic duties. However, there is increasing
responsibility of the mother as breadwinners in
Africa, especially in areas where wars, famine
and other natural disasters have put a limit to the
capacity of men to perform their traditional roles.
Among the Ilajes of Ondo State, traditional
sexual division of labour found expression. Men
did the fishing and tilting of the land for farming,
while women washed, smoked, processed and
sold the produce. However, this study found out
that more women are now involved in fishing
and agriculture that was an area that used to be
dominated by men. Table 1 shows the occupational
distribution of women in the study area obtained
from the field.
Table 1: Occupational distribution of women
S. Occupation No. of Percentage
No. respondents
1. Fishing only 21 14.0
2. Fishing and smoking 75 50.0
3. Fishing, smoking and trading 24 16.0
4. Fishing and agriculture 18 12.0
5. Agriculture only 12 8.0
Source: Fieldwork 2008
The reason for this occupational migration
of inhabitants is not far fetched. Men are
increasingly abandoning this role to women due
to availability of new jobs in the oil facilities.
Out of 150 women sampled, 28 or 18% reported
some changes in spouses' occupation within
the past five years. Out of the 28, 19 or 68%
reported that their husbands are either directly
employed or are contractual staffs of or are
depended on the oil companies for their
livelihood somehow. The implication of this
occupational migration by men is that women
now combine their traditional roles of cooking,
fetching water and fish smoking to their new
191
Total 150 100.0
roles as breadwinners, thereby increasing the
burden they have to cope with. In the study
area, women are becoming major farmers,
fishermen and traders, the positions held
exclusively by men before the new opportunities
in the oil industries
Synopsis of Environmental Impact of Oil
Activities in Ilaje
The discussion on environmental implication
of oil and gas pollution on the environment will
be conducted under two broad headlines- These
are on soil and water quality in the study area. It
is in the context of this that the gender implication
could be better understood.
The impact of oil activities can be determined
through damage to soil properties. The
reconnaissance and field surveys carried out
on the communities where oil is exploited
showed evidence of barreness of the hitherto
fertile parcels of land used for farming. Indeed
this phenomenon has led to occupational
migration from farming in two of such
communities - Awoye and Molutehin, where 73
respondents reported migration from farming to
fish smoking and trading over the past 10 years.
Prior to the emergency of commercial oil
production in the 5 sampled communities around
1980, the clay-loamy soil was fertile for
agricultural purposes, especially the cultivation
of cocoyam, yam, maize, cassava etc. The study
showed that 92% of the respondents in the
communities with oil wells claimed that the soil
of their communities have been polluted in
one-way or the other. This finds scientific
explanation. Halogenated substances contain
hydrogen compounds with one or more of the
Halide elements such as chlorine, bromine and
iodine. Many of these substances are very toxic
to life, floral and fauna, and they may pose
immediate threat to human health. These
substances are present in hydrocarbons
One of the most obvious negative
implications of oil mining is the damage to water
resources (Gbadegesin and Adewumi 1997).
This is particularly important since water
constitute the most important environmental
resource in Ilaje. Water is used for domestic
purpose, transportation, fishing and to lesser
extent, for agricultural purpose in these
communities. Their whole life and existence
depends on water. It is on the basis of this that
the damage posed to this resource by oil
pollution can be understood. 91 respondents
or 61% of respondents in the study area reported
changing taste 105 or 70% colour and 87 or 58%
reported changing odour of the fresh water used
for drinking purpose. This can be appreciated
when it was discovered that 101 or 67.3%
reported exclusive dependence on surface water
for domestic use. No wonder therefore, that
women interviewed noted decreasing yield of
fish for basket per day over the last ten years of
oil mining.
Oil Pollution and Domestic Water Supply
Some years back before the coming into
operation of Chevron's oil mining activities in
1997, good water supply used to be abundant.
Women did not have to travel over long distances
to get good water for their families. However,
due to this activity, many surface water bodies
became polluted, some directly from oil and gas
flaring, others from the hydrocarbon leakage from
tankers. Respondents were asked to rank the
major problems being faced by them, 65%
reported pollution of water bodies as the greatest
problem being faced by women in Ilaje
(see Table 2). The drilling activities in some areas
like Tsekelewu made surface water muddy and
almost useless for domestic use. The implication
is that women now traveled over long distances
to get drinking water for their families. Reason
for traveling to get drinking water was
investigated. 70 respondents 46.6% reported
polluted surface water from hydrocarbons, while
38 respondents or 25% observed that surface
water was now getting coloured and dirty,
which is still a result of the activity as shown in
table 3.
Table 2: Major problems associated with oil exploitation
by respondents
Problem Number of Percentage
respondents
Pollution of water bodies 98 65.0
Poor commerce 12 8.0
Poor health facilities 10 6.6
Low fish catch 30 20.0
Source: Field report 2008
Table 4 shows that 78 respondents or 62%
have to travel for more than 1kilometer to obtain
drinking water (that is Borehole provided by
Chevron/NNPC joint venture at Opoekeba and
192 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
Tsekelewu). 12% travel on average of 2.5km, 8.5%
travel on average of 1.3kilometer, 20% travel for
an average of 1.8kilometer, 11% for an average of
2.3kilometer and 37% for less than 500 meters to
get drinking water.
From the table, it is clear that more women
travel from their communities to fetch drinking
water from the borehole provided by NNPC/
Chevron joint venture because the surface rivers
have been polluted. Communities like Opoekaba
and Tsekelewu travel very short distances because
the boreholes are located in their communities.
The suffering imposed by this situation in term
of drinking water can best be imagined in the
distance traveled by Canoe or Boat and money
spent in the process. For example, 94.8% of the
women use either boat or Canoe to travel to get
drinking water.
Given the fact that outboard engine consumes
more fuel than land vehicles, it is estimated that a
trip of about 21.5kilometer will cost N800 fuel to
and fro from the borehole sites per month (see
Table 5).
The implication of the foregoing analysis is
that surface river sources of drinking water is
polluted and rendered unfit for consumption. We
can thus conclude that while Nigeria benefits
from oil exploitation, in terms of foreign exchange,
oil mining and its attendant impacts has
worsened the plight of women who now have to
travel farther and spend more of their meager
Table 3: Reason for traveling to get drinking water
Town/Reasons Polluted Water Bush water is Others are Don’t know
Surrounding coloured and good for doing so
water dirty drinking
Opoekaba 22 12 5 3 3
Ikorigho 8 4 2 1 -
Obenla 5 4 3 - 3
Awoye 6 4 2 2 1
Tsekelewu 29 14 12 3 2
Source: Field report 2008
Table 4: Distance traveled to get drinking water in communities with oil wells
Town/Distance Less than 500m-1km 1.1km 1.6km-2km 2.1km Above Toral
500 1.5km 2.5km 2.5k.m
Obenla 2 7 6
Ikorigho 5 3 6 1
Opoekaba 34 8 3 7 5 3
Awoye - - - 3 3 9
Tsekelewu 22 3 5 7 3 5
Source: Field report 2008
Table 5: Estimated cost of travel by women to get
drinking water per month
Amount (Naira) Respondents Percentage
Below 500 21 14.0
500-1000 34 22.6
1500-2000 53 35.3
2000-2500 12 8.0
2500-3000 30 20.0
Total 150 100.0
Source: Fieldwork 2008
incomes to get drinking water thus increasing
feminine poverty in Ilaje regions.
Oil, Farming and Women
Scholars, such as Zitiko (1978) and Nwankwo
and Ifeadi (1988) have long recognized the
negative impacts of oil pollution on agriculture
in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria of which the
study area is classified. According to these
scholars, various materials that are released into
the environment in the course of oil production
operations directly or indirectly affect the
communities. These materials sink into the
ground and kill living micro plants and animals,
which are useful in germination of seed. Such
contaminants include elements such as oxide of
nitrogen, carbon and sulphur. Others include oil
and grease, phenol cyanide sulphide and muds
such as Beryite and Bentonite. All these have
OIL AND GAS POLLUTION ON FEMALE 193
Total 70 38 24 9 9
Percentage 46.6 25.4 16.0 6.0 6.0
Total 56 16 13 30 17 18
Percentage 37.0 10.6 8.6 20.0 11.0 12.0
led to progressive reduction of agricultural yield
in the area. This comes against the backdrop of
the fact that more women are now embracing
agriculture following decreasing fish yield per
basket.
Oil extraction and pollution have adversely
affected farming activities and figures in table 6
indicate that 95.7% of women claimed that their
farm lands have been affected in one way or the
other by hydrocarbons pollution while only 4.3
percent claimed no damage at all. Breaking the
figure down, 60% claim reduced crop yields,
30.4% claim destruction of plants, 3.5% believe
that the tubers of crops gets rotten and 1.7%
reported other types of damage.
Table 6: Effects of oil exploitation on farm
Effect Number of Percentage
respondents
Greatly reduced yield 87 58
Averagely reduced yield 37 24.7
No yield at all 19.5 13.0
No effect 6.5 4.3
Source: Field Work 2008
62% in Opoekaba, 53% in Tsekelewu to 22%
in Obenla. The implication of greatly reduced
farm yields among women farmers over the
years is reduced income and more poverty in
face of increasing responsibilities of women as
breadwinners to their families.
Women Fishing and Poverty
Fishing is no doubt the major economic
activity in Ilaje region of Ondo State and women
are involved in fishing trade from catching to
smoking to trading in fish. However, there has
been an observed reduction in yield over the
past ten years of oil mining.
Hydrocarbons affect the natural habitat of
fishes. Moreover, pollution results in the inability
to breed and out migration of fishes (Adeniyi
1978). Women interviewed reported an average
of 65.3% reduction in yield per basket as shown
in the table 7.
This is particularly important since about 90%
of women interviewed were in the fishing
industry. The implication of this is reduced
standard of living since more harvest translates
to more money and vice versa. More over, more
and more women now have to travel to catch
fishes since aquatic animals now out migrate to
new habitats free of hydrocarbons, thereby
imposing more strain on women as shown in the
table 8.
Table 7: Estimated fish yield per basket.
Towns Number of Estimated yield Estimated yield Percentage
respondents before oil after oil reduction
pollution/basket pollution/basket
per day (1995) per day (2006)
Opoekaba 45 1-1.5 0.5 40
Ikorigho 15 1-2 1 66
Obenla 15 1-3 2.5 None
Awoye 15 2.5 1.8 72
Opoekaba 45 1-1.5 0.5 40
Ikorigho 15 1-2 1 66
Obenla 15 1-3 2.5 None
Awoye 15 2.5 1.8 72
Tsekelewu 60 1.2 1 83
Source: Field survey 2008
Table 8: Estimated distance to fishing ground
Town No. of respondents Estimated distance to Estimated distance of fishing
fishing ground by 1995 ground in 2006
Opoekaba 45 0.5km to 3.7km 5-20km
Ikorigho 15 0.8km to 8km 6-15km
Obenla 15 2-3km 3-10km
Awoye 15 0.5-1km Over 5km
Tsekelewu 60 2-5km 10-15km
Source: Fieldwork 2008
194 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
Total 150 100.0
The effects of oil exploitation on farmlands
vary among the sampled villages. The women
farmers in the villages of Tsekelewu and
Opoekaba reported high incidences of pollution
on their farmlands. The percentage varies from
Table 8 shows clearly an increase of over 300%
in travel distance to good fishing grounds over
the past 10 years. Oil mining activity is a major
contributor to this. This activity has depleted
fish and other aquatic animal habitats pushing it
further into non-oil producing fresh water
swamps. This has further imposed strain on
women bearing in mind that more women are now
exclusively fishermen (14%), fishermen and fish
smokers (64%), fishermen, fish smokers and
traders (80%).
CONCLUSION
This study has tried to evaluate the negative
impacts of environmental degradation
occasioned by oil mining on women. Using such
indices as women as breadwinners, women as
fishermen and farmers and women as providers
of domestic services to their families. The study
has again revealed the pathetic situation of
women as the most vulnerable group. The study
found out that environmental degradation may
have had more negative impacts on women than
men due to their traditional and changing roles
among the Ilajes. Thus, while men may find in
the oil industry new opportunities, it may have
increased strain on women in terms of access to
water, access to new fish grounds, depleted and
degraded farmlands and so on.
RECOMMENDATION
This work is centered on assessing the
negative impacts of Oil and Gas Mining on
women of Ilaje Area of Ondo State in Nigeria, a
major region noted for high incidence of pollution
which results from misuse of these valuable
environmental and non- renewable resources. By
taking a sample of the oil producing villages, the
study established extensive damage to soil and
water resources especially in Tsekelewu and
Opoekaba which affects not only economic
activities of agriculture and fishing, but also
domestic water supply, commerce and environmental
sustainability.
This has continued unabated over the years in
spite of Government's rhetorics on ending this
wasteful attitude. It was also established that this
phenomenon has affected women who have had
to combine their domestic roles as mother to their
new roles as bread winners for their families. The
study finds out that women are increasingly
involved in traditionally men's roles as farmers
and fishermen. This they do with considerable
difficulty, since oil and gas pollution has affected
agricultural yield, reduced fish caught from 1- 1.5
standard basket per day before oil production to
less than 1 standard basket per day after oil rig
was installed in Opoekaba, increased distance
traveled to get good drinking water to more than 1
kilometer and increased poverty generally in the
area.
To alleviate this burden, it is recommended
that the government must ensure the monetization
of the gas being flared and impose stringent oil
mining rules to ensure a better environment.
Moreover, development planners should recognize
women and children as the most vulnerable group
in a challenging environment as we have here.
Measures designed to alleviate their strains
should be specifically incorporated in development
projects so that they can be empowered equitably
in meeting the millennium development goal of
sustainable environment and gender equity by
2015.
REFERENCES
Adeniyi I 1978. Effects of Oil Pollution on Fishing in
Focados, Delta state. Journal of Food Production
in Africa, 12: 120-135.
Aidoo A 1988. Women and food security, the opportunity
for Africa. African Development Journal, 2(3): 56-
61.
Ake C 1993. The Underdevelopment of the Niger Delta.
Paper Presented at the Bi Annual Conference of
Nigeran Institute of Policy and Startegic Studies,
Kuru, Jos, March 1 - 15 1990.
Akor R 1988. Rural Women and Agricultural
Development in Nigeria: Case Studies of Kaduna
and Bendel State APMEU. Journal of Economics
and Social Research, 4: 22-38.
Alapodia J 1986. Effects of Gas Flaring on the Micro
Climate and Adjacent Vegetation in Isoko Area of
Bendel State. MURP Thesis, Unpublished, Ibadan:
University of Ibadan,.
Callaway B 1987. Muslim Hausa Women in Nigeria:
Tradition and Change: New York: Syracruse Press.
Clayton B 2003. Sustainable Development in the New
Millennium. In Sustainable Development in Africa
Conference held in Nairobi, Kenya, November 3 -
10, 2003.
Davison J 1988. Agriculture, Women and Land: The
African Experience Boulder. London: Westview
Press.
Dimon E 1975. The Small Scale Rural Food Processing
Industry in Northern. Nigeria Palo Alto: Stanford
University Food Research Institute, Volume 18
No.10. 28 -30.
Durotoye B 2000. Geo-Environmental Constraints in
the Development of the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria.
Lagos: Fredrich Ebert Foundation.
Gbadegeshin A, Adewumi E 1997. The Impacts of Oil
Exploitation and Production Activities on the
OIL AND GAS POLLUTION ON FEMALE 195
Environment, Implication for Peasants. A Campaign
for Defense of Human Rights CDHR Publication.
Volume 1, No. 3.
Horenstein N 1989. Women and Food Security in Kenya.
Washington DC.: World Bank. Nigeria Oil and Gas
Review Volume 21, 2002, Abuja. 22-28
Jiriko G 1998. Aspects and Topical Issues in Urban and
Regional Planning Practices. Volume 1. Kaduna:.Dalin
Publishers. 1-5
Nwankwo C 2000. Environment Food and Agriculture
Dynamics; Development Policy Implication for
National Resources Exploration and Exploitation
in the Niger Delta Wetlands In: Oshuntokun
Olalekan (Ed.): Environmental Problems of the
Niger Delta. Lagos: Fredrich Ebert Foundation,
pp. 22-28.
O' Neil M 1991. Priorities for International Support for
African Development: The Women's Agenda.
Development, 1: 68-70.
Odu C 1985. Degradation and Wealth of Crude Oil under
Tropical Conditions. The Petroleum Industry and
the Nigerian Environment, Lagos: NNPC, pp. 143-
153.
Olawoye A 2001. Women and Farming in Africa. Akure:
Bentos Publishers. 82-85
Olawoye J 2000. Difficulties of Rural African Women to
Secure assess to resources for Agricultural
Production: Two case studies from Oyo State
Nigeria. Ibadan: Bossman Publishers.
Palmer Jeremy 1991. Gender and Population in the
Adjustment of African Economics. Planning for
Change. Stockholm: World Commission on
Population IR&D.
Shell Bulletin 2004. Published by shell Nigeria Publishing
Department. Volume 12, No 15.
Singh B, Saddiqque I, Martins B.l 1992. Industrial
Pollution in India, Punjab 1137 ANS. West Bengal
J, 1(4): 519-525.
World Bank 1999. State of the World Manufacturing
and Competitiveness of Developing Countries. 360
BD, USA. Washington DC: World Bank, pp. 102 -
104.
Zikito R 1978.Toxity and Environmental properties of
chemicals used in a well drilling Operations.
Publisher Environment Canada Brundswick EPA
Conf., pp. 45-58.
196 A.F. FATUSIN, ARIBIGBOLA AFOLABI AND G.A. ADETULA
